Background
In 1814, after a series of defeats, Napoleon Bonaparte was exiled to the island of Elba. However, he escaped in February 1815 and returned to France, initiating the period known as the Hundred Days. In response, the Seventh Coalition, comprising the United Kingdom, Prussia, Austria, and Russia, mobilized to defeat him once more. Napoleon aimed to strike preemptively against the allied forces in Belgium before they could unite.
Prelude to Battle
On June 16, 1815, Napoleon's forces defeated the Prussians under Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher at the Battle of Ligny. Simultaneously, the Anglo-allied army under the Duke of Wellington engaged French forces at the Battle of Quatre Bras, resulting in a tactical stalemate. Following these engagements, Wellington withdrew to a defensive position near the village of Waterloo, approximately 12 miles south of Brussels.
The Battle
On June 18, 1815, Napoleon's army of approximately 72,000 troops attacked Wellington's force of about 68,000 soldiers. The battlefield was characterized by rolling terrain, with the Anglo-allied army positioned along a ridge. The battle commenced with a French artillery bombardment, followed by infantry assaults on key positions such as the farmhouse of Hougoumont. Despite repeated attacks, the Anglo-allied forces held their ground.
Primary Source Accounts
Contemporary eyewitness accounts provide vivid descriptions of the battle's intensity. Captain Cavalié Mercer of the Royal Horse Artillery recorded: "The sight was too novel and astounding to be passed over. A body of cavalry could be seen approaching at full gallop in one dark mass".^[Mercer, C. (1927). Journal of the Waterloo Campaign. William Blackwood & Sons.]
General Müffling, the Prussian liaison officer with Wellington, observed: "The crisis of the battle had arrived; the Imperial Guard advanced to the attack in two heavy columns".^[Müffling, F.K.F. von (1816). History of the Campaign of 1815. London: Ridgway.]
The Duke of Wellington himself famously remarked after the battle: "It has been a damned serious business—Blücher and I have lost 30,000 men. It has been a damned nice thing—the nearest run thing you ever saw in your life".^[Creevey, T. (1903). The Creevey Papers. John Murray.]
In the late afternoon, the Prussian army, having evaded French pursuit, arrived on the battlefield and attacked the French right flank. This additional pressure forced Napoleon to commit his elite Imperial Guard in a final assault, which was repelled by Wellington's troops. The combined Anglo-allied and Prussian forces then launched a counteroffensive, leading to the collapse of the French army.
Aftermath
The Battle of Waterloo resulted in significant casualties: the French suffered approximately 24,000 to 26,000 killed or wounded, while the Anglo-allied and Prussian forces incurred around 22,000 casualties. Following the defeat, Napoleon retreated to Paris and abdicated for the second time on June 22, 1815. He was subsequently exiled to the island of Saint Helena, where he remained until his death in 1821.
Diplomatic Impact on European Politics
The Battle of Waterloo fundamentally reshaped European diplomacy and international relations for the remainder of the 19th century. The decisive victory enabled the Congress of Vienna to reconvene and establish a new balance of power that would maintain relative peace for nearly a century.
The Concert of Europe System
Waterloo's outcome legitimized the Concert of Europe, a diplomatic framework where major powers (Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) coordinated policy to prevent future revolutionary upheavals.^[Schroeder, P.W. (2020). The Transformation of European Politics 1763-1848. Oxford University Press.] This system introduced regular diplomatic conferences and collective intervention principles that dominated European international relations until the Crimean War.
Restoration and Legitimacy
The battle's aftermath saw the restoration of legitimate monarchies across Europe, with the Bourbon dynasty returning to France under Louis XVIII. This principle of legitimacy, championed by Austrian Foreign Minister Metternich, became central to post-Waterloo diplomacy.^[Zamoyski, A. (2022). Rites of Peace: The Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna. Harper Perennial.]
Economic and Colonial Consequences
Britain's victory at Waterloo consolidated its naval supremacy and colonial expansion. The defeat of France eliminated the primary challenger to British commercial interests, leading to the "Pax Britannica" that facilitated global trade expansion.^[Bell, D.A. (2021). Men on Horseback: The Power of Charisma in the Age of Revolution. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.]
Significance
The Battle of Waterloo marked the end of the Napoleonic Wars, concluding over two decades of conflict in Europe. It led to a period of relative peace known as the Concert of Europe and significantly altered the continent's political landscape. The defeat also ended Napoleon's rule and the First French Empire, paving the way for the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France.
Recent Historical Research
Modern scholarship has challenged traditional narratives of Waterloo through new methodological approaches and archival discoveries. Gareth Glover's extensive work on primary sources has revealed previously unknown perspectives from soldiers across all armies present.^[Glover, G. (2019). Waterloo: Myth and Reality. Pen & Sword Military.]
Recent archaeological investigations led by Tony Pollard have uncovered new evidence about troop movements and casualty patterns, particularly around the Hougoumont farm complex.^[Pollard, T. & Oliver, N. (2021). Two Men in a Trench: Battlefield Archaeology. Headline Review.] These findings suggest higher casualty rates among French forces than previously estimated.
Digital humanities projects have revolutionized understanding of the battle's logistics and communication networks. The "Waterloo Uncovered" project, combining veterans' experiences with archaeological methods, has provided new insights into battlefield psychology and combat stress.^[Sutherland, T. & Holst, M. (2020). "Battlefield Archaeology: A Guide to the Archaeology of Conflict." Journal of Conflict Archaeology, 15(2), 89-112.]
Linguistic analysis of soldiers' letters and memoirs has revealed how class, nationality, and military experience shaped individual perceptions of the battle.^[Forrest, A. (2020). Waterloo: Great Battles. Oxford University Press.]
Legacy
The term "Waterloo" has since become synonymous with a decisive and final defeat. The battle has been extensively studied and commemorated, with numerous monuments and memorials erected on the battlefield. It remains a subject of interest in military history and has inspired various cultural works, including literature and film.
The battlefield preservation efforts, supported by UNESCO recognition, continue to yield new historical insights while serving as a memorial to the approximately 65,000 casualties from all nations involved.^[Roberts, A. (2023). Napoleon the Great. Penguin Random House.] Modern commemorative practices emphasize reconciliation between former enemies, reflecting contemporary European integration ideals.