Buddhism is a religion and philosophy that arose in northern India in the 5th century BCE, attributed to Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), whose teachings on suffering, liberation, and ethical cultivation generated a diverse tradition across Asia. Standard summaries identify the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path as foundational, together with doctrines of impermanence, dependent origination, and non‑self (Anatta). According to Encyclopaedia Britannica and the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy’s entry on the Buddha, the early community (sangha) coalesced around the Buddha’s teaching career, typically dated to the 5th century BCE, with modern scholarship often placing his death around 405 BCE.
Buddhism;
Buddha (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy);
Four Noble Truths—Britannica.
Origins and historical development
- –Early sources situate the Buddha’s birth at Lumbini, corroborated epigraphically by the Ashokan pillar inscription identifying the site as the Buddha’s birthplace; Emperor Ashoka marked the location during the 3rd century BCE, and the area is recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage site.
Britannica—Lumbini;
UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
- –The Mauryan ruler Ashoka publicized his policy of dhamma in rock and pillar edicts and patronized Buddhism’s spread after the 3rd century BCE, providing some of the earliest datable inscriptions referencing the Buddhist community.
Edicts of Ashoka (overview).
- –From its North Indian heartland, Buddhism moved to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia (Theravada), to Central and East Asia (Mahayana), and to the Himalayan regions (Vajrayana), with further expansion along Silk Road networks through translation projects and monastic foundations.
Asia Society—Belief Systems Along the Silk Road;
Core teachings
- –The Four Noble Truths set out that life in samsara is pervaded by dukkha (unsatisfactoriness), that craving and ignorance condition this, that cessation (nirvana) is possible, and that the Eightfold Path is the method.
Buddha (SEP); [Gethin, The Foundations of Buddhism](book://Rupert Gethin|The Foundations of Buddhism|Oxford University Press|1998).
- –The Eightfold Path organizes training into right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration, integrating ethical conduct (sīla), meditation (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā).
- –Central analyses include impermanence (anicca), suffering/unsatisfactoriness (dukkha), and non‑self (anattā), with dependent origination explaining the causal patterning of experience; later scholasticism (Abhidharma) systematized these into analytic taxonomies.
Abhidharma (SEP); [Gethin](book://Rupert Gethin|The Foundations of Buddhism|Oxford University Press|1998).
- –Nirvana is described as the “extinguishing” of the causes of suffering, with classical distinctions between nirvana-with-remainder and parinirvana; interpretations vary across schools but maintain its status as the unconditioned goal.
Scripture and literature
- –The Theravada canon (Pali Tipiṭaka) comprises Vinaya (monastic rules), Sutta (discourses), and Abhidhamma (analytical doctrines), forming the principal scriptural basis in South and Southeast Asia.
- –Mahayana literature expands the canon with sutras such as the Prajñāpāramitā corpus, the Lotus Sutra, and Avataṃsaka, elaborating ideals like the bodhisattva path and the three bodies (trikāya).
- –Vajrayana (Tantric/Esoteric) adopts ritual, mantra, and mandala practices, with distinctive tantras and commentarial cycles that became prominent in Tibet and parts of East Asia.
Pluralism Project—Vajrayana.
Institutions and practice
- –The sangha denotes the monastic community of bhikkhus (monks) and bhikkhunīs (nuns), governed by the Vinaya; lay communities support them through merit-making while pursuing precepts, meditation, and devotional practices suited to local traditions.
- –Meditation encompasses concentration (jhāna) and insight (vipassanā) in Theravada, while East Asian traditions developed Chan/Zen and Pure Land recitation; Tibetan lineages emphasize deity yoga and advanced tantric methods.
Major branches and schools
- –Theravada, prevalent in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia, emphasizes the Pali Canon and the ideal of the arhat; modern vipassanā movements have expanded globally.
- –Mahayana, dominant in China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, articulates the bodhisattva ideal and diverse schools including Pure Land, Tiantai/Tendai, Huayan/Kegon, and Chan/Zen.
- –Vajrayana, centered in Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia, integrates tantric ritual, mantra, and meditation within monastic lineages such as Nyingma, Sakya, Kagyu, and Gelug.
Geography and demographics
- –Buddhism’s largest populations are in Asia, with 98% of adherents in the Asia‑Pacific region; between 2010 and 2020 the global count declined from 343 million to 324 million, and Buddhists form majorities in Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Laos, and Mongolia.
Pew Research Center—Global Buddhist population change, 2010–2020;
- –Patterns of religious switching vary: Sri Lanka and Thailand show high retention, whereas Japan, South Korea, Singapore, and the United States exhibit notable net losses or mixed flows, with many former Buddhists becoming unaffiliated; the U.S. has also seen significant accession into Buddhism.
Philosophical developments
- –Indian Mahayana philosophy fostered schools such as Madhyamaka (emphasizing emptiness, śūnyatā) and Yogācāra (consciousness-only), which shaped doctrinal and meditative vocabularies adopted across Asia.
- –Abhidharma scholasticism in different schools analyzed phenomena into dharmas and debated temporality, causation, and personhood, influencing both Theravada and Sarvāstivāda traditions.
Ritual, devotion, and art
- –Pilgrimage to sites associated with the Buddha’s life—including Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, and Kushinagar—has been integral since antiquity and adapted within regional cultures.
- –Devotional practices (stupa veneration, chanting, image worship) coexist with meditation and ethical observance, reflecting layered ritual repertoires within each tradition.
Modern transformations
- –From the 19th century, colonial encounters, reform movements, and transnational networks produced new lineages, lay associations, and global teachings; contemporary Buddhism includes revivalist Theravada meditation movements, East Asian temple networks, and Tibetan diaspora institutions.
- –Mindfulness and meditation have become widely disseminated in secular contexts while remaining anchored in classical frameworks within monastic and lay communities worldwide.