Orchestra

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are formed through the cooling and solidification of molten rock material, originating from magma beneath the Earth's surface or lava erupted onto it. They are categorized into intrusive and extrusive types, each with distinct formation processes and characteristics.

Plate Tectonics

Plate tectonics is a scientific theory explaining the movement of Earth's lithospheric plates over the asthenosphere, leading to the formation of continents, mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes.

Stalactites

Stalactites are mineral formations that hang from the ceilings of caves, formed through the deposition of minerals from dripping water. They are primarily composed of calcium carbonate and develop over thousands of years.

Thermohaline circulation

Thermohaline circulation (THC) is the global-scale component of ocean circulation driven by density gradients set by seawater temperature and salinity. It links surface and deep layers through high‑latitude sinking and widespread upwelling, transporting heat, freshwater, nutrients, and carbon and shaping regional and global climate. Modern observing arrays and paleoclimate evidence show its variability across years to millennia, with a very likely weakening projected under continued warming.

Van Allen radiation belts

The Van Allen radiation belts are toroidal zones of energetic charged particles trapped by Earth’s magnetic field. Discovered in 1958 using data from the U.S. satellite Explorer 1, they comprise a relatively stable inner belt dominated by protons and a highly variable outer belt dominated by electrons, with occasional transient additional belts during strong space‑weather events. These belts affect spacecraft design and operations and remain a central subject in space physics and space weather research.

Volcanic eruption

A volcanic eruption is the release of molten rock, gases, and fragmented material from a volcano onto Earth’s surface, driven by buoyant magma and the expansion of dissolved gases. Eruptions range from gentle effusions of lava to highly explosive events that inject ash and aerosols into the atmosphere, with impacts that can extend from local communities to global climate. The style and magnitude of eruptions depend chiefly on magma composition, viscosity, and gas content, as well as interaction with external water.

Volcano

A volcano is a vent and associated landform where molten rock, ash, and gases from Earth’s interior reach the surface. Most volcanoes are concentrated at tectonic plate boundaries, though some occur above mantle hotspots, and eruptions range from effusive lava outpourings to highly explosive events with significant hazards to people, infrastructure, and climate.