Earth Science
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Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed through the cooling and solidification of molten rock material, originating from magma beneath the Earth's surface or lava erupted onto it. They are categorized into intrusive and extrusive types, each with distinct formation processes and characteristics.
Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is a scientific theory explaining the movement of Earth's lithospheric plates over the asthenosphere, leading to the formation of continents, mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes.
Stalactites
Stalactites are mineral formations that hang from the ceilings of caves, formed through the deposition of minerals from dripping water. They are primarily composed of calcium carbonate and develop over thousands of years.
Volcanic eruption
A volcanic eruption is the release of molten rock, gases, and fragmented material from a volcano onto Earth’s surface, driven by buoyant magma and the expansion of dissolved gases. Eruptions range from gentle effusions of lava to highly explosive events that inject ash and aerosols into the atmosphere, with impacts that can extend from local communities to global climate. The style and magnitude of eruptions depend chiefly on magma composition, viscosity, and gas content, as well as interaction with external water.
Volcano
A volcano is a vent and associated landform where molten rock, ash, and gases from Earth’s interior reach the surface. Most volcanoes are concentrated at tectonic plate boundaries, though some occur above mantle hotspots, and eruptions range from effusive lava outpourings to highly explosive events with significant hazards to people, infrastructure, and climate.