Materials Science
Cryogenics
Cryogenics is the branch of physics and engineering that studies the production and effects of extremely low temperatures, typically below -150°C (123 K). It encompasses the liquefaction of gases and the behavior of materials at these temperatures, with applications across various scientific and industrial fields.
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at the nanoscale, typically 1–100 nanometers, where materials can exhibit size-dependent properties. Emerging from mid-20th century ideas and enabled by late-20th century instrumentation, it spans physics, chemistry, biology, materials science, and engineering, with applications in electronics, energy, medicine, and manufacturing.
Superconductivity
Superconductivity is a set of physical properties observed in certain materials where electrical resistance vanishes and magnetic flux fields are expelled from the material. Any material exhibiting these properties is a superconductor. Unlike an ordinary metallic conductor, whose resistance decreases gradually as its temperature is lowered, a superconductor has a characteristic critical temperature (Tc) below which the resistance drops abruptly to zero.