Planetary Science
Cryovolcanism
Cryovolcanism refers to volcanic activity on icy celestial bodies, where volatile substances like water, ammonia, or methane erupt instead of molten rock. This phenomenon is observed on moons and dwarf planets in the outer Solar System, significantly influencing their geological landscapes.
Magnetosphere
A magnetosphere is the region of space around an astronomical body where its magnetic field dominates the motion of charged particles. Shaped by interaction with ambient plasma such as the solar wind, magnetospheres include distinct boundaries and current systems, regulate the entry of energy and particles, and play a central role in space weather and atmospheric evolution.
Ocean
The ocean, also known as the global ocean, is the body of salt water that covers approximately 71 percent of the Earth's surface. This interconnected system is fundamental to life on Earth, regulating climate, shaping weather patterns, and supporting a vast array of biodiversity. It is traditionally divided into five major basins: the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, and Arctic oceans.
Terraforming
Terraforming is the proposed planetary engineering of an astronomical body's environment to make it suitable for Earth life. The concept spans definitions, target worlds, methods, feasibility studies, and legal-ethical frameworks, with Mars and Venus as frequent case studies. Contemporary assessments emphasize scientific, technological, and policy constraints alongside alternative strategies such as paraterraforming.
Venus
Venus is the second planet from the Sun and Earth’s closest planetary neighbor, a cloud‑shrouded terrestrial world of extreme heat and pressure with a dense carbon dioxide atmosphere. Similar in size and bulk composition to Earth, it rotates retrograde, has no moons, and exhibits global cloud super‑rotation, an intense greenhouse effect, and signs of ongoing volcanism. Modern knowledge comes from decades of flybys, orbiters, landers, and atmospheric probes from multiple space agencies.