Thermodynamics
Cryogenics
Cryogenics is the branch of physics and engineering that studies the production and effects of extremely low temperatures, typically below -150°C (123 K). It encompasses the liquefaction of gases and the behavior of materials at these temperatures, with applications across various scientific and industrial fields.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the spontaneous movement of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane from a region of higher solvent chemical potential (lower solute concentration) to lower solvent chemical potential (higher solute concentration). It is fundamental in physical chemistry and cell biology, underpinning water balance in cells and enabling technologies such as reverse osmosis desalination and dialysis.