Volcanology
Caldera
A caldera is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms following the evacuation of a magma chamber. When a large volume of magma is erupted over a short time, structural support for the rock above the chamber is lost, causing the ground to collapse into the emptied or partially emptied magma chamber. This subsidence leaves a large depression, often circular or elliptical in shape, which is significantly larger than a volcanic crater.
Crater Lake
Crater Lake, located in south-central Oregon, is renowned for its deep blue color and exceptional water clarity. Formed approximately 7,700 years ago by the collapse of Mount Mazama, it is the deepest lake in the United States and the main feature of Crater Lake National Park.
Cryovolcanism
Cryovolcanism refers to volcanic activity on icy celestial bodies, where volatile substances like water, ammonia, or methane erupt instead of molten rock. This phenomenon is observed on moons and dwarf planets in the outer Solar System, significantly influencing their geological landscapes.
Cryovolcano
A cryovolcano is a volcano that erupts volatile substances such as water, ammonia, methane, and brines instead of molten silicate rock. Cryovolcanism shapes the geology of many outer Solar System bodies, with confirmed activity on Enceladus and Triton and strong evidence on Europa, Ceres, and Pluto.
Geyser
A geyser is a rare type of hot spring that intermittently ejects boiling water and steam through a surface vent. Geysers form where abundant groundwater, a strong heat source, and a constricted subsurface plumbing system coincide, conditions that exist in only a few regions worldwide, notably Yellowstone in the United States, Kamchatka in Russia, Iceland, New Zealand, and northern Chile. Their eruptions, mineral deposits, and associated microbial ecosystems make them important subjects in geology, hydrology, and astrobiology.
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Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed through the cooling and solidification of molten rock material, originating from magma beneath the Earth's surface or lava erupted onto it. They are categorized into intrusive and extrusive types, each with distinct formation processes and characteristics.
Volcanic eruption
A volcanic eruption is the release of molten rock, gases, and fragmented material from a volcano onto Earth’s surface, driven by buoyant magma and the expansion of dissolved gases. Eruptions range from gentle effusions of lava to highly explosive events that inject ash and aerosols into the atmosphere, with impacts that can extend from local communities to global climate. The style and magnitude of eruptions depend chiefly on magma composition, viscosity, and gas content, as well as interaction with external water.
Volcano
A volcano is a vent and associated landform where molten rock, ash, and gases from Earth’s interior reach the surface. Most volcanoes are concentrated at tectonic plate boundaries, though some occur above mantle hotspots, and eruptions range from effusive lava outpourings to highly explosive events with significant hazards to people, infrastructure, and climate.