Nanotechnology refers to the science and engineering of materials, devices, and systems with features on the order of 1–100 nanometers, where quantum and surface phenomena can dominate behavior. Authoritative U.S. program guidance defines the nanoscale as about 1 to 100 nanometers and frames nanotechnology as research and technology conducted at that scale. According to the National Nanotechnology Initiative, interagency efforts since 2000 have coordinated U.S. federal research, infrastructure, and responsible development in this domain. National Nanotechnology Initiative Glossary. (nano.gov)

History and conceptual foundations

• –In a 1959 lecture at Caltech, Richard Feynman anticipated manipulating and controlling matter at extremely small scales, arguing there was plenty of room at the bottom for new physics and technology; the transcript appeared in 1960. Caltech Authors Library. (authors.library.caltech.edu)
• –The term nanotechnology is widely credited to Norio Taniguchi, who used it in 1974 to describe production technologies achieving nanometer precision. The International Institute for Nanotechnology cites Taniguchi’s keynote and definition as the first usage in this context. International Institute for Nanotechnology. (iinano.org)
• –In 1986, K. Eric Drexler popularized a molecular manufacturing vision in the book Engines of Creation, influencing public discourse on potential bottom-up fabrication. [Engines of Creation](book://K. Eric Drexler|Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology|Anchor/DoubleDay|1986).

Tools and techniques

• –The 1981 invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer enabled imaging and manipulation of individual atoms on conductive surfaces and was recognized by the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physics. Nobel Prize press release. (nobelprize.org)
• –Building on STM, the atomic force microscope (AFM) was introduced in 1986 by Binnig, Quate, and Gerber to probe insulating as well as conductive surfaces with sub-nanometer vertical resolution. Physical Review Letters. (journals.aps.org)
• –Scanning probe microscopy as a family of techniques transformed surface science and nanoscale metrology by providing real-space maps of topography and local properties. Nobel Prize 1986 speed read. (nobelprize.org)

Definitions, standards, and policy

• –U.S. federal framing: the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI), launched in 2000 and authorized in 2003 by the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act, coordinates over 30 agencies across research, infrastructure, and responsible development. About the NNI; Federal legislation; 15-year authorization milestone. (nano.gov)
• –European Union: in June 2022, the European Commission issued an updated Recommendation on the definition of nanomaterial to harmonize regulation, generally covering materials with 50% or more of particles in the 1–100 nm range by number-based distribution, with shape-specific provisions. Official Journal C 229, 2022; Commission news release; Implementation guidance 2023. (eur-lex.europa.eu)
• –Foundational policy analysis: the 2004 report Nanoscience and nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties by the UK Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering emphasized benefits, risk research needs, and regulatory considerations. Royal Society (2004). (royalsociety.org)

Approaches to making and structuring matter

• –Top-down methods miniaturize bulk materials (e.g., lithography, focused ion beam milling), while bottom-up methods exploit molecular self-assembly and controlled synthesis to build structures from atoms or molecules. Authoritative overviews outline self-assembly as the autonomous organization of components into ordered structures across scales. Royal Society (2004); [Self-Assembly at All Scales](journal://Science|Self-Assembly at All Scales|2002). (royalsociety.org)

Key materials and structures

• –Graphene, a single-atom-thick sheet of carbon discovered in 2004, was recognized with the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics for groundbreaking experiments by Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov; it combines exceptional electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties. Nobel Prize 2010 summary; Popular information. Graphene. (nobelprize.org)
• –Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical carbon structures with nanometer-scale diameters that exhibit high aspect ratios, strength-to-weight ratios, and distinctive electronic behavior; they are widely studied for composites and nanoelectronics. Authoritative summaries and occupational guidance reflect both promise and exposure considerations. NIOSH CIB 2013. (cdc.gov)
• –Quantum dots are semiconductor nanocrystals whose optical emission depends on size due to quantum confinement; the 2023 Nobel Prize in Chemistry honored Bawendi, Brus, and Yekimov for discovery and synthesis, enabling applications in displays and biomedical imaging. Nobel Prize 2023 press release. (nobelprize.org)

Applications

• –Electronics and computing: Nanoscale transistors, interconnects, memories, and sensors underpin modern microelectronics; nanomaterials such as graphene, nanotubes, and quantum dots are explored for advanced logic, flexible electronics, and optoelectronics. Government program portfolios highlight electronics among core outcomes. NNI accomplishments. (nano.gov)
• –Energy and environment: Nanostructured catalysts, membranes, and electrode materials improve performance in fuel cells, batteries, photocatalysis, and water purification; U.S. interagency narratives catalog progress toward lighter, more efficient, and durable materials and devices. NNI accomplishments. (nano.gov)
• –Medicine and health: In oncology and beyond, nanoscale carriers and devices are used for targeted delivery, imaging, and diagnostics; the U.S. National Cancer Institute’s Alliance for Nanotechnology in Cancer (launched 2004) coordinates research translation and infrastructure. NCI Alliance; NCI nanotechnology portal. (cancer.gov)
• –FDA-regulated products: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration maintains guidance for evaluating drug products, including biologics, that contain nanomaterials; FDA also issued cross-cutting considerations for determining whether products involve the application of nanotechnology. FDA drug products with nanomaterials; FDA considering nanotechnology guidance; Cosmetics safety guidance. (fda.gov)

Health, safety, and responsible development

• –Responsible development has been integral to major national and international strategies, emphasizing risk assessment, exposure control, and public engagement. The 2004 Royal Society report was a landmark in calling for targeted research on environmental, health, and safety (EHS) aspects. Royal Society (2004). (royalsociety.org)
• –Occupational exposure: NIOSH recommends an 8-hour TWA recommended exposure limit (REL) of 1 μg/m³ (respirable elemental carbon) for carbon nanotubes and nanofibers and 0.9 μg/m³ (respirable) for silver nanomaterials, reflecting animal data and measurement capabilities. NIOSH CIB CNT/CNF; NIOSH silver nanomaterials CIB 70. (cdc.gov)
• –U.S. chemical reporting: Under TSCA section 8(a), EPA’s 2017 rule requires one-time and prospective reporting for certain nanoscale forms of existing chemical substances to inform risk evaluation and oversight. EPA TSCA nanoscale materials rule. (epa.gov)

Institutions, programs, and infrastructure

• –The National Nanotechnology Initiative supports shared user facilities, education, and coordination across agencies; it highlights research spanning early discovery to commercialization, including networks and signature initiatives such as nanosensors. About NNI; NSI on nanosensors. (nano.gov)

Influential milestones and recognitions

• –Scanning tunneling microscopy (1981; Nobel Prize in Physics 1986) demonstrated imaging at atomic resolution and surface manipulation, opening new avenues in surface science. Nobel 1986 press release. Scanning Tunneling Microscope. (nobelprize.org)
• –Atomic force microscopy (1986) extended nanoscale imaging to insulating materials and has become a standard laboratory tool. Physical Review Letters. Scanning Tunneling Microscope. (journals.aps.org)
• –The 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics recognized graphene’s discovery and characterization, and the 2023 Nobel Prize in Chemistry recognized quantum dots, underscoring nanoscience’s maturation and impact across disciplines. Nobel 2010 summary; Nobel 2023 press release. (nobelprize.org)

Further reading and reference overviews

• –Encyclopaedia entries and overviews provide accessible summaries of definitions, history, methods, and applications in manufacturing, electronics, and medicine. Encyclopaedia Britannica. (britannica.com)